Ancient Alexandria, located on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, was one of the most illustrious cities of the ancient world. Founded in 331 BCE by Alexander the Great, the city became a center of Hellenistic culture, science, learning, and commerce. Over the centuries, it stood as a beacon of knowledge and multicultural coexistence, renowned for institutions like the Great Library of Alexandria and the Lighthouse of Pharos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Founding by Alexander the Great

After conquering Egypt in 332 BCE, Alexander the Great envisioned a new city that would serve as a link between Greece and the rich resources of the Nile Valley. He chose the site of Rhacotis, a small Egyptian village near the Mediterranean Sea, for its strategic location and natural harbors. The city was designed by Dinocrates of Rhodes, a Greek architect, with a grid layout influenced by Hippodamian urban planning.

Although Alexander never lived to see the city built—he died in 323 BCE—his vision was carried out by his general Ptolemy I Soter, who later became the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries.

Rise as a Cultural and Scientific Powerhouse

Under the Ptolemies, Alexandria flourished into a cultural and intellectual capital, attracting scholars, artists, and philosophers from across the Mediterranean.

The Great Library of Alexandria

Arguably the most iconic symbol of ancient Alexandria, the Library of Alexandria aimed to collect all human knowledge. Founded during the reign of Ptolemy I or Ptolemy II, the library reportedly housed over 400,000 scrolls at its peak, including works of literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy.

Prominent scholars associated with the Library included:

  • Euclid, father of geometry

  • Eratosthenes, who calculated the Earth’s circumference

  • Archimedes, one of the greatest mathematicians of all time

  • Hipparchus, founder of trigonometry

The Mouseion (Museum)

Adjacent to the library was the Mouseion, a scholarly institute that functioned much like a modern research university. It included lecture halls, observatories, laboratories, and botanical gardens. This academic community was state-supported and dedicated to the pursuit of knowledge.

The Lighthouse of Pharos

Built on the small island of Pharos around 280 BCE, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was another monumental achievement of the ancient world. Standing approximately 100 to 130 meters tall, it served as a guide for sailors navigating the dangerous waters of the Nile delta. It remained operational for over 1,000 years before being destroyed by a series of earthquakes between the 10th and 14th centuries.

Religious and Cultural Diversity

Ancient Alexandria was home to a rich mosaic of ethnic and religious communities, including Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, and later, Romans and early Christians. The city became one of the most important centers of Hellenistic Judaism, and was the birthplace of the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible.

Temples, synagogues, and later, churches dotted the city, reflecting its status as a multicultural metropolis. The Serapeum, a temple dedicated to the Greco-Egyptian deity Serapis, symbolized the fusion of Greek and Egyptian religious traditions.

Roman Conquest and Decline

In 30 BCE, following the defeat of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony by Octavian (Augustus), Alexandria became a Roman city. While it remained a vital commercial and intellectual hub, its political importance declined as the Roman Empire grew.

In the following centuries, several catastrophic events diminished the city's glory:

  • The destruction of the Library: The exact cause is still debated. It may have suffered from multiple burnings—by Julius Caesar in 48 BCE, by Christian zealots in the 4th century CE, and possibly during the Muslim conquest in the 7th century.

  • Christianization: By the 4th century CE, Christianity had become dominant. Pagan temples and institutions were repurposed or destroyed.

  • Arab conquest in 641 CE: The city fell under Islamic control, and while it remained significant, the capital of Egypt was moved to Fustat (near modern-day Cairo), signaling the end of Alexandria’s ancient preeminence.

Archaeological Discoveries and Legacy

Today, modern Alexandria overlays much of its ancient counterpart, but archaeological efforts continue to reveal its former grandeur. Notable discoveries include:

  • Remains of the Serapeum and its famous underground galleries, once protected by the “Daughters of Serapis”

  • Submerged ruins of the Lighthouse and royal palaces in the eastern harbor, now underwater due to seismic activity

  • Roman amphitheaters, mosaics, and catacombs that reflect the city’s layered history

Ancient Alexandria was more than a city—it was a symbol of human aspiration toward knowledge, cross-cultural dialogue, and architectural achievement. Though many of its great monuments and scrolls have been lost to time, its legacy endures in the ideals of scholarship, innovation, and cosmopolitanism it once embodied.

From the Great Library to the Lighthouse of Pharos, Alexandria stands as a reminder of what humanity can achieve when diverse cultures come together in the pursuit of understanding and progress.

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